Feasible Strategies for Lead Recovery and Recycling from End-of-Life Perovskite Solar Cells Towards Environmentally Sustainable Technologies

Firuza Barayeva; Almaz Beisenbayev; Bekbolat Zhussipbay; Yerassyl Olzhabay; Damir Aidarkhanov; Annie Ng

doi:10.18321/ectj1667

Authors

Firuza Barayeva Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, School of Engineering and Digital Sciences, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan
Almaz Beisenbayev Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, School of Engineering and Digital Sciences, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan
Bekbolat Zhussipbay Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, School of Engineering and Digital Sciences, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan
Yerassyl Olzhabay Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, School of Engineering and Digital Sciences, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan; Nazarbayev University Research Administration, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan
Damir Aidarkhanov Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, School of Engineering and Digital Sciences, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan; Nazarbayev University Research Administration, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan
Annie Ng Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, School of Engineering and Digital Sciences, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan; Nazarbayev University Research Administration, Astana, 010000, Kazakhstan

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.18321/ectj1667

Keywords:

Perovskite solar cells, End-of-life management, Recycling, Environmental sustainability, Lead extraction, Solar cell disposal

Abstract

Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) have emerged as one of the most promising next-generation photovoltaic (PV) technologies, offering high power conversion efficiencies (PCEs) and low fabrication costs. Despite these advantages, their short operational lifetime and the use of toxic lead (Pb) compounds remain major obstacles to industrial deployment. The limited stability of PSCs compared to conventional silicon solar cells reduces their economic viability, while the risk of lead leakage raises serious environmental concerns. Recycling PSCs not only addresses the risk of lead pollution but also enables the recovery and reuse of valuable materials, thereby lowering raw material costs and minimizing production waste. This paper reviews recycling strategies reported in recent studies and evaluates their effectiveness, cost benefits, and feasibility for large-scale industrial applications.

References

(1) N. Kumar, J. Rani, R. Kurchania, A Review on Power Conversion Efficiency of Lead Iodide Perovskite-Based Solar Cells, Mater. Today: Proc. 46 (2020) 5570–5574. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2020.09.349

(2) Y. Zhao, K. Zhu, Organic-Inorganic Hybrid Lead Halide Perovskites for Optoelectronic and Electronic Applications, Chem. Soc. Rev. 7 (2016) 655–689. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C4CS00458B

(3) J. De Roo, M. Ibáñez, P. Geiregat, et al., Highly Dynamic Ligand Binding and Light Absorption Coefficient of Cesium Lead Bromide Perovskite Nanocrystals, ACS Nano 10 (2016) 2071–2081. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsnano.5b06295

(4) S. Khalid, M. Sultan, E. Ahmed, W. Ahmed, Third-Generation Solar Cells. In Emerging Nanotechnologies for Renewable Energy; Elsevier, 2021; pp. 3–35. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-821346-9.00019-5

(5) S. Ghimire, C. Klinke, Two-Dimensional Halide Perovskites: Synthesis, Optoelectronic Properties, Stability, and Applications. Nanoscale 7 (2021) 12394–12422. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D1NR02769G

(6) G.W. Kim, A. Petrozza, Defect Tolerance and Intolerance in Metal-Halide Perovskites. Adv. Energy Mater. 10 (2020) 2001959. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.202001959

(7) M.L. Petrus, J. Schlipf, C. Li, et al., Capturing the Sun: A Review of the Challenges and Perspectives of Perovskite Solar Cells. Adv. Energy Mater. 8 (2017) 1700264. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201700264

(8) U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy. Best research-Cell Efficiency Chart. National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). URL

(9) Y. Rong, Y. Hu, A. Mei, et al., Challenges for Commercializing Perovskite Solar Cells. Science 361 (2018). Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aat8235

(10) P. Wang, Y. Wu, B. Cai, et al. Solution-Processable Perovskite Solar Cells toward Commercialization: Progress and Challenges, Adv. Funct. Mater. 29 (2019) 1807661. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.201807661

(11) Y. Ma, Z. Lu, X. Su, et al., Recent Progress Toward Commercialization of Flexible Perovskite Solar Cells: From Materials and Structures to Mechanical Stabilities. Adv. Energy Sustain. Res. 4 (2023) 2200133. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aesr.202200133

(12) T. A. Chowdhury, Md. Arafat Bin Zafar, Md. Sajjad-Ul Islam, et al., Stability of Perovskite Solar Cells: Issues and Prospects, RSC Adv. 13 (2023) 1787–1810. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D2RA05903G

(13) Z. Yue, H. Guo, Y. Cheng, Toxicity of Perovskite Solar Cells, Energies 16 (2023) 4007. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/en16104007

(14) G. Ding, Y. Zheng, X. Xiao, et al., Sustainable Development of Perovskite Solar Cells: Keeping a Balance between Toxicity and Efficiency, J. Mater. Chem. A 10 (2022) 8159–8171. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D2TA00248E

(15) M. Lyu, J.H. Yun, P. Chen, et al., Addressing Toxicity of Lead: Progress and Applications of Low-Toxic Metal Halide Perovskites and Their Derivatives. Adv. Energy Mater. 7 (2017) 1602512. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aenm.201602512

(16) W. Xiang, S. Liu, W. Tress, A Review on the Stability of Inorganic Metal Halide Perovskites: Challenges and Opportunities for Stable Solar Cells, Energy Environ. Sci. 14 (2021) 2090–2113. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D1EE00157D

(17) M.S. Collin, S.K. Venkatraman, N. Vijayakumar, et al., Bioaccumulation of Lead (Pb) and Its Effects on Human: A Review, J. Hazard. Mater. Adv. 7 (2022) 100094. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hazadv.2022.100094

(18) G. Schileo, G. Grancini, Lead or No Lead? Availability, Toxicity, Sustainability and Environmental Impact of Lead-Free Perovskite Solar Cells, J. Mater. Chem. C 9 (2021) 67–76. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D0TC04552G

(19) M. Wang, W. Wang, B Ma, et al., Lead-Free Perovskite Materials for Solar Cells, Nano-Micro Lett. 13 (2021). Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40820-020-00578-z

(20) R.G. Charles, A. Doolin, R. García-Rodríguez, et al., Circular Economy for Perovskite Solar Cells - Drivers, Progress and Challenges, Energy Environ. Sci. 16 (2023) 3711–3733. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/D3EE00841J

(21) International Organization for Standardization. (2006). ISO 14040: Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Principles and framework. Geneva, Switzerland.

(22) International Organization for Standardization. (2006). ISO 14044: Environmental management – Life cycle assessment – Requirements and guidelines. Geneva, Switzerland.

(23) I. Celik, Z. Song, A.J. Cimaroli, et al., Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Perovskite PV Cells Projected from Lab to Fab. Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells. 156 (2016) 157–169. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2016.04.037

(24) P. Billen, E. Leccisi, S. Dastidar, et al., Comparative Evaluation of Lead Emissions and Toxicity Potential in the Life Cycle of Lead Halide Perovskite Photovoltaics. Energy 166 (2019) 1089–1096. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.10.141

(25) R. Vidal, J.A. Alberola-Borràs, N. Sánchez-Pantoja, I. Mora-Seró, Comparison of Perovskite Solar Cells with Other Photovoltaics Technologies from the Point of View of Life Cycle Assessment, Adv. Energy Sustain. Res. 2 (2021) 2000088. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/aesr.202000088

(26) Y.E. Lye, K.Y. Chan, Z.N. Ng, A Review on the Progress, Challenges, and Performances of Tin-Based Perovskite Solar Cells, Nanomaterials 13 (2023) 585. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/nano13030585

(27) C. Candelise, M. Winskel, R. Gross, Implications for CdTe and CIGS Technologies Production Costs of Indium and Tellurium Scarcity, Prog. Photovolt.: Res. Appl. 20 (2012) 816–831. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.2216

(28) J.E. Bradley, W.L. Auping, R. Kleijn, et al., Reassessing Tin Circularity and Criticality, J. Ind. Ecol. 28 (2024) 232–246. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/jiec.13459

(29) R.L. Moss, E. Tzimas, H. Kara, P. Willis, J. Kooroshy, (2011). Critical metals in strategic energy technologies: Assessing rare metals as supply-chain bottlenecks in low-carbon energy technologies. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.

(30) S. Chu, (2011). Critical materials strategy. Collingdale, PA: DIANE Publishing Company. URL

(31) N.A.N. Ouedraogo, G.O. Odunmbaku, Y. Ouyang, et al., Eco-Friendly Processing of Perovskite Solar Cells in Ambient Air, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 192 (2024) 114161. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2023.114161

(32) H.J. Kim, G.S. Han, H.S. Jung, Managing the Lifecycle of Perovskite Solar Cells: Ad-dressing Stability and Environmental Concerns from Utilization to End-of-Life, eScience 4 (2024) 100243. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.esci.2024.100243

(33) B. Chen, C. Fei, S. Chen, et al., Recycling Lead and Transparent Conductors from Perovskite Solar Modules. Nat. Commun. 12 (2021) 5859. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-021-26121-1

(34) H.J. Kim, O.Y. Gong, Y.J. Kim, et al., Environmentally Viable Solvent Management in Perovskite Solar Cell Recycling Process, ACS Energy Lett. 8 (2023) 4330–4337. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsenergylett.3c01542

(35) C.G. Poll, G.W. Nelson, D.M. Pickup, et al., Electrochemical Recycling of Lead from Hybrid Organic-Inorganic Perovskites Using Deep Eutectic Solvents, Green Chem. 18 (2016) 2946–2955. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C5GC02734A

(36) B.B. Hansen, S. Spittle, B. Chen, et al., Deep Eutectic Solvents: A Review of Fundamentals and Applications, Chem. Rev. 121 (2021) 1232–1285. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00385

(37) M. Ren, Y. Miao, T. Zhang, et al., Lead Stabilization and Iodine Recycling of Lead Halide Perovskite Solar Cells, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 9 (2021) 16519–16525. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.1c07083

(38) F. Schmidt, M. Amrein, S. Hedwig, et al., Organic Solvent Free PbI2 Recycling from Perovskite Solar Cells Using Hot Water, J Hazard. Mater. 447 (2023) 130829. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.130829

(39) A. Binek, M.L. Petrus, N. Huber, et al., Recycling Perovskite Solar Cells to Avoid Lead Waste, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 8 (2016) 12881–12886. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.6b03767

(40) V. Larini, C. Ding, F. Faini, et al., Sustainable and Circular Manage-ment of Perovskite Solar Cells via Green Recycling of Electron Transport Layer-Coated Transparent Conductive Oxide, Adv. Funct. Mater. 34 (2023) 2306040. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/adfm.202306040

(41) B.J. Kim, D.H. Kim, S.L. Kwon, et al., Selective Dissolution of Halide Perovskites as a Step towards Recycling Solar Cells, Nat. Commun. 7 (2016) 11735. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/ncomms11735

(42) S.Y. Park, J.S. Park, B.J. Kim, et al., Sustainable Lead Management in Halide Perovskite Solar Cells, Nat. Sustain. 3 (2020) 1044–1051. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0586-6

(43) F. Deng, S. Li, X. Sun, et al. Full Life-Cycle Lead Management and Recycling Transparent Conductors for Low-Cost Perovskite Solar Cell, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 14 (2022) 52163–52172. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.2c14638

(44) P. Chhillar, B.P. Dhamaniya, V. Dutta, S.K. Pathak, Recycling of Perovskite Films: Route toward Cost-Efficient and Environment-Friendly Perovskite Technology, ACS Omega 4 (2019) 11880–11887. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.9b01053

(45) L. Huang, Z. Hu, J. Xu, et al., Efficient Electron Transport Layer-Free Planar Perovskite Solar Cells via Recycling the FTO/Glass Substrates from Degraded Devices, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 152 (2016) 118–124. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2016.03.035

(46) L. Huang, J. Xu, X. Sun, et al., New Films on Old Substrates: Toward Green and Sustainable Energy Production via Recycling of Functional Components from Degraded Perovskite Solar Cells, ACS Sustainable Chem. Eng. 5 (2017) 3261–3269. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.6b03089

(47) B. Augustine, K. Remes, G.S. Lorite, et al., Recycling Perovskite Solar Cells through Inexpensive Quality Recovery and Reuse of Patterned Indium Tin Oxide and Substrates from Expired Devices by Single Solvent Treatment, Sol. Energy Mater. Sol. Cells 194 (2019) 74–82. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solmat.2019.01.041

(48) W. Zhu, W. Chai, D. Chen, et al., Recycling of FTO/TiO2 Substrates: Route toward Simultaneously High-Performance and Cost-Efficient Carbon-Based, All-Inorganic CsPbIBr2 Solar Cells, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 12 (2020) 4549–4557. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.9b21331

(49) F. Yang, J. Liu, Z. Lu, et al., Recycled Utilization of a Nanoporous Au Electrode for Reduced Fabrication Cost of Perovskite Solar Cells, Adv. Sci. 7 (2020) 1902474. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/advs.201902474

(50) Z. Ku, X. Xia, H. Shen, et al., A Mesoporous Nickel Counter Electrode for Printable and Reusable Perovskite Solar Cells, Nanoscale 7 (2015) 13363–13368. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1039/C5NR03610K

(51) M.H. Li, Y.S. Yang, K. C. Wang, et al. Robust and Recyclable Substrate Template with an Ultrathin Nanoporous Counter Electrode for Organic-Hole-Conductor-Free Monolithic Perovskite Solar Cells, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces 9 (2017) 41845–41854. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.7b12367

(52) European Parliament and Council of the European Union. (2012, July 4). Directive 2012/19/EU on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) (recast): Text with EEA relevance. Official Journal of the European Union. URL

(53) M. Tao, V. Fthenakis, B Ebin, et al., Major Challenges and Opportunities in Silicon Solar Module Recycling, Prog. Photovolt.: Res. Appl. 28 (2020) 1077–1088. Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/pip.3316

(54) H. Oh, J. Bae, J. Han, Economic and Environmental Feasibility Evaluation Study of Hydro-metallurgical Recycling Methods for Perovskite Solar Cells, J. Clean. Prod. 489 (2025). Crossref DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2025.144651